Where To Find Articuno In Silver

Operation Barbarossa, Gianantonio Valli

From the analysis of Hoffmann and Suvorov ... Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the USSR peaceful or a preventive war?

The principal argument for assessing the intentions of an army and, consequently, those of the nation that is, is its location, its deployment. There are needs in the tactical and strategic national and whether right or dominant school at the time. For each army, and at all latitudes, a nation that has decided to pursue a political offensive, which has a deliberately planned attack must have, at least in the space provided for the background, a numerical superiority of at least three to one, and sufficient soldiers to oversee the entire front line and answer any counterattacks diversions. Was this not the situation in Germany in June 1941? Do not think so. In that particular case it was an attack not dictated by desire of conquest, but brought to avert or at least avert impending danger.


Author [i]: Gianantonio Valli
Publisher: Effepi
Year: 2009
Pages: 190

Size (cm): 14 x 21
Others: Paperback. 10 maps and 30 illustrations b / w

What Does Masterbate Mean ?

OF CAESAR DE SILVESTRI

The term is relatively new, but even during this short time has been gradually applied in different contexts rather than the original. It was in fact used by Konrad Lorenz and other ethologists then to describe group behavior in animals - including those of alarm, avoidance, escape, and also those of many small animals aggressive against a larger one. In the latter sense, the term was applied by Heinemann and Olweus behavior of groups of children and adolescents who then join forces against a peer (a phenomenon called "bullying" in the United Kingdom and Australia). And finally arrived Leymann to describe the marginalization, abuse, harassment or actual persecution against an adult by another adult or a group of adults in the working environment or simply in a social. Old stuff

Yes, scientists have finally come to consider it, but the practice is very old. Probably because the earliest human groups. I, for one, I saw it at work since I was a boy and did not know or Lorenz or the other authors mentioned above. It should be said that I grew for several years in Tuscany, where it is easy to switch between benign mockery (that is, one might say, in daily bread a group of friends), to the less benevolent and more aggressive behavior against a hapless collectively, targeting its some defect or weakness (sometimes nonexistent), making it the laughingstock of the group, often reaching levels of real cruel psychological torture. When
okay
The most effective defense is of course not to show displeasure, annoyance, anger or bad mood, right from the start of a joke that threatens to become more pungent. And because it's easy to happen, and because sooner or later it happens to every team member to become the victim of such an attempt, an attitude of indifference and almost fun to participate in bars more appropriate is the best way to dismantle the intention of the group more or less vicious. In fact, the intention of the group is not always strictly malevolent. Often it is rather a kind of ordeal - something like an exam, a test of arms - to see if the victim is able to withstand the pressure of seemingly hostile group instead of giving in and collapse. In fact, at the slightest sign of discomfort or pain, peer pressure increases, becomes more acute and persistent, sometimes it becomes really vicious, and the victim will continue to endure for unpredictable weather. Those who grew up in this school knows so well the bullying (or bullying) and knows how to take it lightly, check and perhaps reverse it at the expense of those who started the game. Even when it was dictated by hostile intentions seriously, persecution, slander or worse. Another advantage of those being targeted is the fact that those who would exercise effective operation of harassment against someone, for example in the workplace, usually does not know how to do it. Have you heard about in the abstract, maybe read something about it, but does not have first hand experience. He would need a starting point and can only realistically unfairly exaggerate or invent any pretext. Would require complicated and does not find or is it just someone with little or no reliable. Would need a systematic and coordinated plan and should instead limited to small, sporadic attempts of interference similar to tease from the parish.

Sometimes when it's bad, though, it happens that the victim is targeted by an expert. This may be a Tuscan raised in the school that I said above and who knows firsthand the strategy and technique of persecution. It may be a former student of colleges or schools clerical, especially Jesuit, where you can practice with taste and refinement, the system of "making life impossible" to a companion tried disliked for some reason. And sometimes the best example is instructive as to make war the same teachers, priests and priests. In these cases, if the victim is not as skilled in the persecutor or of the persecutors, the only available resource - know you know it and you have - is to have recourse to the sense of humor. I mean, if an objective is in a position of inferiority - whether it is for example, the employee more or less voluntary, and resentful of a despotic master who tries to vacuum around him to force him to leave - the sense of humor and humor that the victim is unable to produce the most powerful weapons that can be used against abuse, oppression and persecution. Of course, the victim if they could go and send the master to that country. This does not deserve another. But doing so would fall into his game and the game would win. If the victim instead wants to stay and accept this challenge and a bit unfair 'cowardly, may use humor and just shrug its direct or indirect provocations hypocritical. In a word, may decide not to take it seriously. If you take it seriously who do you doers, or t'opprime persecute you, you run the risk of ending up accepting and adopting the assessment, the assessment that he has of you. In other words, you could end up seeing yourself through his eyes and feel responsible or guilty of how it is considered. In short, if you take it seriously, he may be able to crush you, break you and destroy you. If you're able to laugh at him, to see his vanity and weakness of his claims of superiority, if you realize his dishonesty and cowardice, its contradictions, its dishonesty and bad faith, humor will make you more protected, stronger, tougher, stronger. And then the victory, or at least maintaining your emotional balance and your location, it becomes possible.

SOURCE: http://www.psicoterapie.info/322.htm

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Ozegna, July 8, 1944. Chronicle of a senseless slaughter: Sergio Nesi Bardelli




It 'came out some time ago a book by Sergio Nesi, a former Uff.le of the vessels of the Xa MAS, which reconstructs the massacre Ozegna: Ozegna , July 8, 1944. Chronicle of a senseless slaughter, Sergio Nesi - The Scarab (Bologna) . In the book and in his blog, from which are drawn the following quotations in italics, Nesi biography quotes written by the writer, Andrea Lombardi, in 2005 . The decision that gives the Nesi my reconstruction of the life of the founder of Battalion Barbarigo is usually good. Unfortunately, during its close examination Bardelli the Commander and his military career in general and in particular on Ozegna, Nesi wrote (my emphasis and notes in brackets):

Bardelli was not a commander in the true sense and own, had the characteristics of a Master and Commander the meaning given in the Navy in these two words. Master, master, it was certainly because of his grades but not their Commander, was not a leader who puts the head of his men in battle, behaving toward them as a responsible father and sends them to slaughter needlessly . Bardelli, accustomed to this life and that din, not expressed with normal tone, but instinctively he spoke out loud or shouted his shots and d ' anger, as is well known and is confirmed in his biography, had uncontrollable .

(the "biography" mentioned would be mine; captiously Nesi uses some quotes: in several passages of my biography of the "hardness" of Bardelli is always followed by the words of those who knew him, from considerations of humanity and good nature, his work behind the gruff. Furthermore, "hard" or "decided" not necessarily synonymous with "irresponsible" outbursts "fit of nerves," as quotations from Nesi ... This incredible forcing Nesi, true act of intellectual dishonesty, speaks volumes about the goodness of his historiographical considerations "historic" and Ozegna on Bardelli, and its real purpose behind this book of "investigation". Nesi considerations on "Master and Commander", although out of place in the case of Bardelli, which, according to those who had been under his command, was a true leader of men , as it was an excellent engineer officer, the writer, who sails on the ships white, still sees them applied in the traditional but anachronistic "fences" that exist between Deck Officers and machine.)


During my visits to Ozegna I remembered them, because I thought maybe one of those guys who escaped from the hell of Neptune came to die on the square Umbertp of that village, without knowing why, and because of an irresponsible (which would Bardelli, my note).

why I can not understand all that fanaticism of some of the veterans Barbarigo toward the figure of the "Legendary Commander" fanaticism that I could also see the Field of Remembrance on duty when the speakers have recalled only Bardelli, completely forgetting that the battle of Anzio and Nettuno their true commander called Vallauri; Nettuno and Anzio and was also the St. George Group of Artillery, commanded by ten. bathtub. Renato Carnival.

_________

's the story of a senseless slaughter took place within minutes in the narrow square Ozegna, a small town in the Canavese, which occurred on the afternoon of 8 July 1944. About sixty men of the battalions' Barbarigo "and" Sagittarius "of the X MAS Flotilla under the command of Major Naval Engineers Umberto Bardelli, suddenly collided with a score of partisans under the command of their leader Piero urate, cover name" Piero Piero "After being mixed for about twenty minutes in friendly conversations. Suddenly, "Piero Piero" with a jump away from you Bardelli and shouted: "Commander, you are surrounded ... give up!" but Bardelli, taken by surprise, replied with another shout: "Barbarigo not surrender !...", but in an uncontrolled fit of nerves, unfortunately added: "FIRE!".


(Nesi wrote in his Ozegna that rejection of Cte Bardelli to surrender was an irresponsible act and only the result of a "temper tantrum", which brings the useless death of his Marò. In reality, the situation in the square of Ozegna was not that of "friendly conversations," but despite the efforts of dialogue between Bardelli and urate, very tense: the next entrance on the stage of Partisans of urate would hardly have led to a different outcome ... and we can not see how "irresponsible" or "uncontrolled fit of nerves" and the decision, but related fatal in full military honor, not surrender to the enemy without fighting - and here, unfortunately, plays nell'accanimento of his Nesi own biography, having just surrendered to the Allies at the end of an inconclusive mission to end the war, he rebuilt as is an epic undertaking. The writer, however, does not share the video in the "mission" of Nesi a real flight, the mission that will result in any case the end of the ward controlled by Nesi, left without orders and therefore easy prey for Tito. )

(The partisan leader urate, which killed Bardelli, this proving infinitely more human and militarily Nesi, said by telephone recently, speaking of his enemy, then, that "Bardelli was a brave, and would not have killed him")

(Actually, when you see the showdown-Nesi writes about his true motivations-"fanaticism ... ... Barbarigo some veterans of the field of memory", this book is not based on historical research without ira et studio, but only on personal grudges Nesi, cf. the long-standing and controversial issues concerning the design and construction of the Campo Memorial in Nettuno, which-rightly or wrongly-Nesi also involved, the ceremony of 2005 in the said Field Nesi, where he was treated by some veterans as Barbarigo unwelcome guest, or the repeated and certainly not laudatory reviews of departments to Nesi's ground Xa, and veterans Barbarigo in particular).

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HOW THE BRAIN CREATES NEW CONCEPTS

A research highlights the central role of the hippocampus, reveals that to perform an essential function of "advice" in respect of decision-making modules of the prefrontal cortex

How form
the concepts? "Even if a poodle and a golden retriever displayed very different from each other, we can easily appreciate the common attributes because we recognize in them examples of a particular concept, in this case the dog," said Dharshan Kumaran 's University College London , who directed a study, now published in the journal Neuron , "which explains some basic steps of this process. The way which concepts are formed in the brain and help to guide our choices are still very far from being clarified. The prevailing hypothesis is that to have a critical role in the acquisition of conceptual knowledge is the hippocampus, a structure essential for memory formation. However, so far we did not have solid evidence to confirm this hypothesis. Kumaran and colleagues expressing some well designed that allows you to map the emergence and application of new concepts in cervello.I entities in question were participating in a game where they had the opportunity to achieve a gain correctly predict whether a series of days virtual time was sunny or rainy on the basis of what it looked like the night sky of the previous days, described through a series of diagrams on a computer monitor. Before each experimental session subjects were given to memorize a pattern of outcomes associated with each pattern of the night sky. Several groups of these patterns were also conceptually related to each other (such as poodles and golden retriever), thus recognizing that the affinity was easily passed the test successfully. Subsequently, the subjects could apply the knowledge thus gained in further tests in which the concepts were similar to the patterns appears again. Through a series of behavioral and neural measurements, the researchers were able to discover that to preside over the emergency conceptual knowledge of a brain circuit that is functionally coupled sees the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex ventromediale.Tuttavia, was only the observation of the hippocampus that may predict which individuals would be able to successfully apply the concepts learned to new situations. "This suggests that the hippocampus is likely to create and store these concepts, before moving to the prefrontal cortex when they can be exploited," says Kumaran. "Our study offers a new perspective on the human capacity to discover the conceptual structure of visual experience, and reveals that the regions of the so-called 'memory', such as the hippocampus, together with 'modules decision 'of the prefrontal cortex makes this information available. "(dd)
TAKEN FROM http://www.lescienze.it/

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DELETE traumatic memories

A new element is adds to the understanding of phenomena related to memory. And 'know that traumatic experiences leave their mark, often permanent, due to the great excitement caused by the event. I do not have the fond memories intrusiveness el'ossessività characterizing those related to emotionally stressful situations. ipermemoria The el'ipervigilanza constitute a distinctive the personality of traumatized individuals, so that painful memories can wake to a minimum signal associated with the trauma, or recur spontaneously, recurrent forms, such as flashbacks or nightmares, waking during sleep. A deficit in extinction of unpleasant memories is particularly important about the fear and limits the effects of the treatments for anxiety disorders. The extinction of fear involves the inhibitory influences of the prefrontal cortex on the amygdala (limbic system structure that is the sentinel of the emotions, able to respond prior to the neocortex, and eventually, to make a sort of "emotional attachment"). Onto the structure of the amygdala has focused the attention of a study group led by Nadine Gogolla, a researcher at the Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, identified a process that contributes to the permanence of fearful memories. Preliminary results of the study, conducted on mice, were published in the journal Science, with a focus Pizzorusso edited by Thomas, a researcher at the Institute of Neurosciences of the CNR of Pisa. Fear can be induced experimentally in laboratory animals. The anxiety that is learned by associating a neutral stimulus that produces a feeling harmless (conditioned stimulus, for example, the sound of a bell or a white cage) with a reinforcement negative (unconditioned stimulus, such as a brief and mild electric shock to which the animal can not escape in any way), is called "conditioned fear". The opposite process, the extinction of fear, is a technique that is based on the decrease in fear responses when you break the association between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditional, repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without making it follow from the shock. And 'now commonly accepted that extinction represents new learning rather than eradicate the existing memory. In contrast, the original memory may return spontaneously, or may be resumed, if the stimulus is condiziononato presented in a different context than that of the extinction protocol was effettuato.Le animal studies have clearly shown that the effectiveness of learning related to the process of extinction depends on the age. In young memories of fearful events can be deleted permanently, while in adults the fear conditioning induces the formation of memories resistant to treatment with extinction. These observations suggested the hypothesis that memories of fearful emotions are actively protected adults. The research group has shown that protection is conferred by the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) present in the perineuronal network (a highly structured extracellular matrix around the inhibitory neurons), which constitutes the backbone of the amygdala. The experiments were conducted in mice during the postnatal period (16 days and 23 days after birth) and adult mice of three months. The organization of CSPGs into perineuronal network coincides with the crucial period that marks the transition to the stage of development (age youth to adulthood, around the third week of life) in which the memory of fear becomes persistent. If the extracellular matrix is \u200b\u200bremoved in the amygdala of adult mice using a specific enzyme, is facilitated extinction of conditioned fear responses, indicating a network that mediates the formation of perineuronal intact memories committed to eradicate resistant to fear. Nadine Gogolla also noted that the chemical degradation of the matrix works to erase unpleasant memories only if it is made before the fear conditioning and does not act on those already existing. This indicates the possibility that the presence of the protective net modifies the process by which painful memories are stored in the brain. It 's a small step forward in our knowledge of the neurobiology of fear, and may lead to the development of drugs needed to prevent, if not cure anxiety disorders, the most vulnerable. MICELI Rosalba

TAKEN FROM WWW.LASTAMPA.IT

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One Step Ahead exercise in combating abusive of the psychological profession

Section since the last newsletter sent by the Emilia Romagna Psychologists

Dear Colleagues, Dear Colleagues, with this newsletter is pleased to make known to the court decision becomes final passage occurred No 422/2007 by which the Court of Ravenna has condemned Dr. Francesco Abela for improper exercise of the profession of psychologist also recognizes the right to compensation for moral damages and property suffered by the Order, formed in that civil action is a giudizio.Si pronunciation of great interest and great importance as an important success of our category in the fight to illegal. Indeed, it constitutes a new and more serious allegation of unlawful conduct with which those subjects lacking the qualifications required for practice as a psychologist claim, however, to put in-depth evaluations and investigations of alleged purely psychological application of discipline and not atypical rules (which, in this case, that of "naturopathic"). In particular, as also observed by the lawyer. Glue that has assisted and represented the Order in court, the specification of systematic and detailed analysis of events occurring that characterize the motivations of the sentence makes the sentence itself is a great milestone in the evolution of case law on unauthorized practice of the profession of psicologo.In here, while referring to the detailed arguments in the sentence can be downloaded from our website at Fight to illegal / Rulings on cases of unlawful practice of the profession ( here ), the words of the story can be summarized as segue.Il Dr. Abela, after graduating in philosophy, had attended several training courses including, in particular, a master's degree in a course in homeopathy and naturopathy undertaking "intensive professional private pay" for the benefit of persons who, for various reasons, required his advice. However, as correctly stated by Judge also based on evidence arising from the hearing, many had turned to dr. Abela for problems related to their emotional states ("behavioral problems", "kind of emotional distress," "fear of being abandoned," etc.). And these, leaving one to suppose that his qualification to that effect, "diagnose, cure or as advised exerted less activity in the psychological support, performing acts typical of the profession a psychologist. "The Court - fully shares the tips also comments made by CTP Order, Lawyer and Psychologist Dr. Calvi - considered it "clear that the investigation and the approach they tend to be psychological: dialogues on the mood and emotional, childhood, dreams, drawings and testing, interpretation of physical ailments as an expression of a psychological problem; explanations of some inconvenience; suggestions should behave; indication of homeopathic products, or other measures to treat or improve a particular state. It 'just too much to doubt that the accused on several occasions performed standard acts (diagnosis, investigation, support) of their profession protected by the psychologist. "Consequently, the judge convicted the accused of unlawful practice of the profession of psychologist and pursuant to Art. 348 cp remembering, however, that "the state, just in the public interest, must are preparing the necessary means and instruments of control that acts typical of those professions that draw from the physical and mental health of citizens, to be exercised only by persons who have obtained their degree and registration with the association. "In other words, therefore, the Court stated that Dr. Abela had unlawfully taken a typical of the psychological profession, the expression of skills and knowledge that the legislature sought to protect through the identification of a profession is protected in order to avoid any prejudices that might arise from the exercise of certain activities by those he does not have adequate knowledge technical and scientific information, however, stating that "no new figure, in the absence of legislative framework, could in any case to invade the field of professions for which - as stated in art. Cp 348 - requires a special authorization of the State. "Moreover, in ruling that there are more statements are certainly important in the development of confirmations legal principles necessary for a correct application of the criminal case under Article. Cp 348 such as, for example, the configuration of the offense regardless of the correctness of the acts, in addition to the "legitimacy of professional bodies in a civil action against persons who have worked illegally in the profession, causing an injury to the category of property interests and direct image of a lesion. "Forte dei significant results achieved to date, this Order will remain vigilant and act to ensure maximum protection of the profession and membership.

A cordial greeting
Manuela Colombari

Order of Psychologists of Emilia Romagna
www.ordpsicologier.it - \u200b\u200b
e-mail: info@ordpsicologier.it

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the keeper of our personal space

Proxemics: ethology to neuroscience

The definition of interpersonal distance considered acceptable, which also varies from culture to culture, the role of the amygdala is crucial

The size of what we believe our "personal space", the violation by a stranger makes us uncomfortable, are determined by the amygdala. To establish and research conducted by neuroscientists California Institute of Technology (Caltech), who talk about it in an article published in the journal Nature Neuroscience .

It is known that the amygdala is a brain structure heavily involved in processing emotions, particularly negative ones like anger and fear, but so far none had shown a direct link with the management of social interactions of everyday life.

The interpersonal distance is not something you normally think in a conscious way, but its violation calls for immediate attention to it. In different cultures, the interpersonal distance acceptable varies greatly, and the people who live in cultures where space is almost a luxury, as in Japan or in some areas of China, seem to be much more tolerant of distances much smaller than they they are typically Europeans and Americans, albeit with wide variations related to different situations in a crowded subway, for example, this particular area tends to shrink considerably.

The idea to undertake the research that led to this discovery was almost accidental and related to the observation of the behavior of a patient, SM, researchers charge. "MS is unique since it is one of the few people in the world, a handful, that has such a well-defined bilateral amygdala lesion and this gave us the opportunity to study the role of the amygdala in the human being," says Ralph Adolphs, who with Daniel P. Kennedy led the study.

In studying patients with MS, which among other things, has difficulty recognizing fear in the face of others, have noted that it "is extremely sociable and is close to the other much more than normal, one thing that is obvious when you interact with her. "

" Respect the space of a person is a critical aspect of social interaction and is something we do automatically and without effort, "says Kennedy." These findings suggest that the amygdala, which is essential to prove the strong feelings of discomfort that help keep the distances between people, has a central role in this process. And help us to expand our understanding of its role in social interactions in the real world. "( days )

TAKEN FROM http://lescienze.espresso.repubblica.it

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U.S.: ARRIVAL OF THE CLINICAL CURE FOR THE DEPENDENCE ON THE INTERNET

few days ago I received a terrible news from China: in some communities to recover from Internet addiction, some teenagers were beaten and abused as if they were animals. But today comes the news the other part of the world, the United States, the first clinical (professionally recognized) that allows you to recover from "Internet addiction".

Heavensfield The Retreat Center in Fall City, Washington, claims to be the first center in the United States to treat patients addicted to Internet, video games and similar dependencies. The 45 days of enrollment in clinical costs "only" $ 14,500 (just over 10 000 €). The program is designed to help patients to break away from your computer through the combination therapy of social dialogue with traditional training courses, classes such as conversation techniques and appointments. Patients are then enticed to deal with breeding of goats, chickens and do maintenance work at home, a way to get some sort of guidance in the offline world.

The first patient of the clinic is a nineteen year old from Iowa, who has admitted to be "hooked" to the online game World of Warcraft for most of his day. Although it may seem extreme (and expensive) way to be "unplugged," Stuart Fischoff, a psychologist and editor of the Journal of Media Psychology, which has nothing to do with the direction Clinic, believes that the approach of rehabilitation would be helpful.

for patients in clinical situations, the comparison with domestic animals has been highly positive. The aim is to access the patient in the trial of gratification from something that does not require an Internet connection. So once that is given to the patient what he needs, likes and he does not judge the world more like a video game.

The program on the Web site states that "anywhere from 60 to 10% of the online population is dependent on one or more aspects of computer technology and the Internet." However, the emerging concept of "Internet addiction" is controversial. The term has not yet been recognized by the American Psychiatric Association as a disturbance and is not listed in the APA's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). But some experts have lobbied for its inclusion in the next revision of the manual, due out in 2012.

Ronald W. Pies, a professor of clinical psychiatry at Tufts University, argued that much of the debate is based on whether Internet abuse is a distinct disorder or a symptom of deeper psychological problems such as anxiety, depression or a disorder in the relations interpersonal, for which we can explain the problems that are repaid to the network. LiveScience the professor said:

The question is: we need another mess on our list, if the manifestations of Internet addiction may already be well described by rappresentatoe validated and better conditions ?

Although research is still very low, Internet addiction exists. A study by leading researchers at Stanford University found that more than one in eight Americans show signs of "problematic Internet use, such as the difficulty of having to stay away from PC for several days. But the study's authors acknowledged that the results were "too premature" to justify a medical diagnosis. The conclusions are based on a telephone survey on 2,513 adults, carried out in 2006.

Source: http://www.psicologiaesalute.com/

бои спокемон

prospect theory

The prospect theory is a theory of decision formulated by psychologists Israeli Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in 1979 ^[1] . It is an alternative descriptive to expected utility theory of John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern .

This means that while the classical theory was intended to establish the conditions ideals (''regulations'') that a decision can be defined as''rational'', the prospect theory is proposed instead to provide a description of how individuals actually behave in the face of a decision. The prospect theory focuses in particular on the decisions in conditions of risk , which are defined as decisions in which it is known (or can estimate) the probabilities associated with possible outcomes of each option available ^[2] .

Conditions

The most innovative aspect of this formulation is that it is based on empirical evidence. Through numerous experiments cognitive psychology Indeed, Kahneman and Tversky showed how the choices of human beings systematically violate the principles of economic rationality ^{[3 ]} . In particular, the two authors put emphasis on two important psychological phenomena, in fact connected to each other:

1. L ' context effect ( framing ): The frame , that is the context in which the individual is making a choice, has a decisive effect the choice itself. In particular the way in which the problem is formulated affect the way the individual perceives the starting point (or''status quo''), against which to evaluate the possible outcomes of their actions. A famous example of this effect is Asian disease problem ^[3] , in which two different formulations of the same problem generally lead two different decisions by the majority of individuals.
   
2. L ' loss aversion : For most people, the motivation to avoid a loss is greater than the motivation to make a profit. This general psychological principle, which is probably related to a kind of survival instinct, makes the same decision may give rise to conflicting choices if the results are displayed to the subject as a loss rather than loss of earnings. For example it is easier to give a better discount than to accept a price increase, although the difference between the start and end is the same ^[4] .

The value function

The prospect theory incorporates a mathematical formulation aspects more properly psychological evaluation with the fundamental principle of individual expected utility theory , that the most rational choice is one that maximizes the product of the expected value of each event for its probability. Kahneman and Tversky introduces a value function , in which the probabilities of possible events is weighted by the value π , which is the''weight''that had each outcome in the evaluation of the individual. The value function is described by

where is a transformation, nonlinear probability p _the .

As is clear from the representation, the value function has a non-linear: in particular, considering the center of the chart as the starting situation the decision maker ( standstill ), the function is concave in region gains and convex in region losses: This means that small changes close to the starting point (in both regions) have a greater impact on choice than large changes away from the point itself. Moreover, the curve has a slope greater losses in the region, which helps to explain the phenomenon described above as loss aversion: A gain and a loss of the same magnitude have the same effect on the choice, but a loss was proportionally greater impact.

Applications and developments

The prospect theory has had considerable success, especially in the economic sphere, such that one of its authors, Daniel Kahneman , won the 2002 the Nobel Prize 's economy . Its predictions have proved effective, especially in describing the behavior of investors and economic agents, and providing an explanation to some violations of utility theory as the sunk cost effect ( sunk cost ) and the effect of possession ( Endowment ). However, its psychological validity, and in particular its extensibility to different contexts and financially they are not universally shared. A possible application of the theory of the prospectus outside the economic context, however, was provided by military historian John A. Lynn , who argues that the theory provides an interesting, though not directly verifiable interpretation of foreign policy Louis XIV in the last years of his reign ^[5] .

From the point of view of decision theory , the prospect theory, although indisputable merits, violates the principle of stochastic dominance , which applies to situations where a given probability distribution of outcomes is superior to another. In 1992 was developed by the same authors, a revised version of the theory, called cumulative prospect theory ^[6] , including situations of stochastic dominance.

Daniel Kahneman

Notes

1. ^ Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk , Econometrica , 47 (2), 1979, 263-291.
2. ^ Rino Rumiati, Nicolao Bonini,''Psychology decision'', Bologna, Il Mulino , 2001, pg. 13, ISBN 8815081461 .
3. ^ ^{to b} Amos Tversky e Daniel Kahneman, The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice , Science , New Series, Vol. 211, No. 4481. (Jan. 30, 1981), pp. 453-458.
4. ^ Amos Tversky e Daniel Kahneman, Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions , The Journal of Business , Vol. 59, No. 4, Part 2: The Behavioral Foundations of Economic Theory. (Oct., 1986), pp. S251-S278.
5. ^ John A. Lynn, (1999) The Wars of Louis XIV 1667-1714 , United Kingdom: Pearson Education Ltd, 1999, pp. 43-44
6. ^ Tversky, Amos (1992) Advances in prospect theory: Cumulative representation of uncertainty . Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 5 : 297-323. DOI : 10.1007/BF00122574 .

from Wikipedia

http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_del_prospetto

Daniel Kahneman

the Nobel Prize for Economics to a psychologist

The official purposes of the Nobel

The Nobel Committee of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences decided to award the "Bank of Sweden for Economic Science 2002 "in memory of Alfred Nobel meta 'in conjunction with:

Daniel Kahneman

Princeton University, USA

Born in 1934 in Tel Aviv, Israel (Israeli and U.S. citizen)

PhD from the University of California at Berkeley in 1961.

"for having integrated subjects of psychological research with the sciences of economics, with particular regard to decision-making and uncertainties in the proceedings"